International Journal of Sport Management

Developing Sport Communities via Social Media: A Conceptual Framework

Beth A. Ciafrone, Stacy Warner

Abstract: Building and managing online communities continues to be a growing challenge among sport social media managers and marketers. With the growth of various social media platforms and an exponential increase in users, an opportunity exists to strategically use these platforms for developing and strengthening an online community among fans. Recent scholars have pointed out the limited theory in and related to sport and social media research. This work responds to that call by proposing how the Sport and Sense of Community theory can be used as a guide for strategically planning and building community in an online setting. In doing so, a new Online Sport Community Building conceptual model is offered. The model suggests that sport managers and marketers can strategically benefit from placing an emphasis on: Conscientious Outreach, Emphasis on Shared Goals, Equitable Policies, Contests and Rivalries, Fan Leadership Opportunities, and Social Spaces. Practical applications for each factor are discussed.

Keywords: Sport online community, strategic marketing management, Facebook, Twitter

Citation: Cianfrone, B. A., & Warner, S. (2018). Developing sport communities via social media: A conceptual framework. International Journal of Sport Management, 19(1), 57-81.

References

  • Abeza, G., O’Reilly, & Reid, I. (2013). Relationship marketing and social media in sport. International Journal of Sport Communication, 6, 120-142.
  • Abeza, G., O’Reilly, N., Séguin, B., & Nzindukiyimana, O. (2015). Social media scholarship in sport management: A critical review. Journal of Sport Management, 29, 601-618.
  • Adams, J.S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 267-299). New York: Academic Press.
  • Algesheimer R., Dholakia, U.M., & Hermann, A. (2005). The social influence of brand community: Evidence from European car clubs. Journal of Marketing, 69, 19-34.
  • Armstrong, C.G., Delia, E.B., & Giardina, M.D. (2014). Embracing the social in social media: An analysis of the social media marketing strategies of the Los Angeles Kings. Communication & Sport. DOI: 10.1177/2167479514532914
  • Babiak, K., & Wolfe, R. (2009). Determinants of corporate social responsibility in professional sport: Internal and external factors. Journal of Sport Management, 23, 717-742.
  • Babiak, K., & Wolfe, R. (2006). More than just a game? Corporate social responsibility and Super Bowl XL. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 15(4), 214-224.
  • Babiak, K. (2010). The role and relevance of corporate social responsibility in sport: A view from the top. Journal of Management & Organization, 16, 528-549.
  • Bale, J. (1998). Virtual fandoms: Futurescapes of football. In A. Brown (Ed.), Fanatics: Power, identity, and fandom in football (pp. 265-278). London: Routledge.
  • Berg, B.K., Warner, S., & Das, B.M. (2015). What about sport? A public health perspective on leisure-time physical activity. Sport Management Review, 18(1), 20-31.
  • Berkman, L.F., Glass, T., Brissette, I., & Seeman, T.E. (2000). From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium. Social Science & Medicine, 51, 843–857. doi:10.1016/S0277-9536(00)00065-4
  • Blaszka, M., Burch, L.M., Frederick, E. L., Clavio, G., & Walsh, P. (2012). #WorldSeries: An empirical examination of a Twitter hashtag during a major sporting event. International Journal of Sport Communication, 5, 435–453.
  • Brodie, R.J., Hollebeek, L., Juric, B., & Ilic, A. (2011). Customer engagement: Conceptual domain, fundamental propositions and implications for research. Journal of Service Research, 14(3), 1-20.
  • Brodie, R.J., Ilic, A., Juric, B., & Hollebeek, L. (2013). Consumer engagement in a virtual brand community: An exploratory analysis. Journal of Business Research, 66(1), 105-114.
  • Cahill, K. (2011). Going social at Vancouver Public Library: What the virtual branch did next. Program. Electronic Library and Information Systems, 45, 259-278.
  • Chalip, L.C. (2006). Toward a distinctive sport management discipline. Journal of Sport Management, 20, 1–21.
  • Chen, G.M. (2011). Tweet this: A uses and gratifications perspective on how active Twitter use gratifies a need to connect with others. Computers in Human Behavior, 27, 755-762.
  • Chiu, C.M., Wang, E.T., Shih, F.J., & Fan, Y.W. (2011). Understanding knowledge sharing in virtual communities: an integration of expectancy disconfirmation and justice theories. Online Information Review, 35(1), 134-153.
  • Cialdini, R.B., Borden, R.J., Thome, A., Walker, M.R., Freeman, S., & Sloan. L.R. (1976). Basking in reflected glory; Three (football) field studies. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 34, 366-375.
  • Cialdini, R.B., & Richardson, K.D. (1980). Two indirect tactics of image management: Basking and Blasting. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 39(3), 406-415.
  • Clavio, G. (2008). Uses and gratifications of internet collegiate sport message board users. Dissertation Abstracts International, 69(8). Retrieved from: https://scholarworks.iu.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2022/8163/umi-indiana-2039.pdf?sequence=1
  • Clavio, G., Burch, L.M., & Frederick, E.L. (2012). Networked fandom: Applying systems theory to sport Twitter analysis. International Journal of Sport Communication, 5, 522–538.
  • Clopton, A.W. (2008). College sports on campus: Uncovering the link between fan identification and sense of community. International Journal of Sport Management, 9, 343-362.
  • Cohen, S., Underwood, L., & Gottlieb, B. (Eds.). (2000). Social support measurement and interventions: A guide for health and social scientists. New York: Oxford.
  • Constantinides, E., & Fountain, S.J. (2008). Web 2.0: Conceptual foundations and marketing issues. Journal of direct, data and digital marketing practice, 9(3), 231-244.
  • Cunningham, G.B., Fink, J., & Doherty, A. (2015), Routledge handbook of theory in sport management. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Davidson, W., & Cotter, P.R. (1991). The relationship between sense of community and subjective well-being: A first look. Journal of Community Psychology, 19, 246–253.
  • Dees, W. (2011). New media and technology use in corporate sport sponsorship: Performing activational leverage from an exchange perspective. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 10(3/4), 272-285.
  • Dixon, M.A., & Warner, S. (2010). Employee satisfaction in sport: Development of a multi-dimensional model in coaching. Journal of Sport Management, 24, 139-168.
  • Doherty, A. (2013). Investing in sport management: The value of good theory. Sport Management Review, 16, 5–11. DOI: 10.1016/j.smr.2011.12.006
  • Eagleman, A.N., & Krohn, B.D. (2012). Sponsorship awareness, attitudes toward sponsors, and purchase intentions of participants in a road race series. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 21, 210-220.
  • Fairley, S., & Tyler, B. (2012). Bringing baseball to the big screen: Building sense of community outside of the ballpark. Journal of Sport Management, 26, 258-270.
  • Filo, K., Lock, D., & Karg, A. (2015). Sport and social media research: A review. Sport Management Review, 18(2), 166-181.
  • Fink, J. (2013). Theory development in sport management: My experiences and other considerations. Sport Management Review, 16, 17–21.
  • Frederick, E.L., & Clavio, G. (2015). Blurred lines: An examination of high school football recruits’ self-presentation on Twitter. International Journal of Sport Management, 8, 330-344.
  • Frederick, E.L., Clavio, G.E., Burch, L.M., & Zimmerman, M.H. (2012). Characteristics of users of a mixed-martial-arts blog: A case study of demographics and usage trends. International Journal of Sport Communication, 5(1), 109-125.
  • Frederick, E., Lim, C.H., Clavio, G., Pedersen, P.M., & Burch, L M. (2014). Choosing between the one-way or two-way street: An exploration of relationship promotion by professional athletes on Twitter. Communication & Sport, 2, 80-99.
  • Funk, D.C., & James, J. (2001). The Psychological Continuum Model: A conceptual framework for understanding an individual’s psychological connection to sport. Sport Management Review, 4, 119-150.
  • Funk, D.C., & James, J. (2006). Consumer loyalty: The meaning of attachment in the development of sport team allegiance. Journal of Sport Management, 20, 189– 217.
  • Garcia, C. (2011). Real Madrid Football Club: Applying a relationship-management model to a sport organization in Spain. International Journal of Sport Communication, 4, 284-299.
  • Gibbs, C., O’Reilly, N., & Brunette, M. (2014). Professional team sport and Twitter: Gratifications sought and obtained by followers. International Journal of Sport Communication, 7, 188-213.
  • Goodwin, C., & Ross, I. (1992). Consumer responses to service failures: Influence of procedural and interactional fairness perceptions. Journal of Business Research, 25, 149-163.
  • Grönroos, C. (1994). From marketing mix to relationship marketing: Towards a paradigm shift in marketing. Management Decision, 32(2), 4-20.
  • Grönroos, C. (2004). The relationship marketing process: communication, interaction, dialogue, value. Journal of business & industrial marketing, 19(2), 99-113.
  • Geurin, A.N. (2017). Elite female athletes’ perceptions of new media use relating to their career: A qualitative analysis. Journal of Sport Management, 31, 345-359.
  • Greenwell, T.C., Brownlee, E., Jordan, J.S., & Popp, N. (2008). Service fairness in spectator sport: the importance of voice and choice on customer satisfaction. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 17(2), 71-78.
  • Hambrick, M.E., Simmons, J.M., Greenhalgh, G. P., & Greenwell, T.C. (2010). Understanding professional athletes’ use of Twitter: a content analysis of athlete tweets. International Journal of Sport Communication, 3, 454-471.
  • Havard, C.T. (2014). Glory out of reflected failure: The examination of how rivalry affects sport fans. Sport Management Review, 17, 243-253.
  • Havard, C.T., Gray, D.P., Gould, J., Sharpe, L.A., & Schaffer, J.J. (2013). Investigating the impact of conference realignment on rivalry in intercollegiate athletics. Development and validation of the Sport Rivalry Fan Perception Scale (SRFPS). Journal of Sport Behavior, 36, 45-65.
  • Heere, B. (2015). Keeping up attendance: Building a community around a brand. Sport & Entertainment Review, 1, 20-26.
  • Heinze, K.L., Soderstrom, S., & Zdroik, J. (2014). Towards strategic and authentic corporate social responsibility in professional sport: A case study of the Detroit Lions. Journal of Sport Management, 28, 672-686.
  • Hennig‐Thurau, T., Gwinner, K.P., Walsh, G., & Gremler, D.D. (2004). Electronic word‐of‐mouth via consumer‐opinion platforms: What motivates consumers to articulate themselves on the Internet? Journal of Interactive Marketing, 18(1), 38-52.
  • Holt, D.B. (1995). How consumers consume: A typology of consumption practices. Journal of Consumer Research, 1-16.
  • Hopkins, J.L. (2013). Engaging Australian Rules Football fans with social media: A case study. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 13, 104-121.
  • Huang, K.Y., & Guney, S. (2012). Toward a framework of Web 2.0 driven organizational learning. Communications of the Association for Information Systems, 31, 128-152.
  • Hull, K., & Lewis, N.P. (2014). Why Twitter displaces broadcast sports media: A model. International Journal of Sport Communication, 7(1), 16-33.
  • Hums, M.A., & Chelladurai, P. (1994). Distributive justice in intercollegiate athletics: The views of NCAA coaches and administrators. Journal of Sport Management, 8, 200–217.
  • Ioakimidis, M. (2010). Online marketing of professional sports clubs: Engaging fans on a new playing field. International Journal of Sports Marketing & Sponsorship, 11(4), 271.
  • Katz, E., Blumler, J.G., & Gurevitch, M. (1974). The uses and gratifications approach to mass communication. Beverly Hills, Calif.: Sage Publications.
  • Katz, M., & Heere, B. (2013). Leaders and followers: An exploration of the notion of scale-free networks within a new brand community. Journal of Sport Management, 27(4), 271- 287.
  • Kellett, P., & Warner, S. (2011). Creating communities that lead to retention: The social worlds and communities of umpires. European Sport Management Quarterly, 11, 475-498. DOI: 10.1080/16184742.2011.624109
  • Kerwin, S., Warner, S., Walker, M., & Stevens, J. (2015). Exploring sense of community among small-scale sport event volunteers. European Sport Management Quarterly, 15, 77- 92. DOI:10.1080/16184742.2014.996581
  • Kihl, L.A., Babiak, K., & Tainsky, S. (2014). Evaluating and the implementation of a professional sport team’s corporate community involvement initiative. Journal of Sport Management, 28, 324-337.
  • Lacey, R., & Kennett-Hensel, P.A. (2010). Longitudinal effects of corporate social responsibility on customer relationships. Journal of Business Ethics, 97(4), 581-597.
  • Mahony, D. ., Hums, M.A., Andrew, D.P., & Dittmore, S.W. (2010). Organizational justice in sport. Sport Management Review, 13(2), 91-105.
  • Mangold, W.G., & Faulds, D.J. (2009). Social media: The new hybrid element of the promotion mix. Business horizons, 52(4), 357-365.
  • Newman, T., Peck, J.F., Harris, C., & Wilhide, B. (2013). Social media in sport marketing. Scottsdale, AZ: Holcomb Hathaway.
  • Nitch Smith, M. (2016). The 19 most popular rich-list football clubs on social media. The Business Insider. http://www.businessinsider.com/the-19-most-popular-football-teams-on-facebook-twitter-and-instagram/#19-newcastle-united–england-1
  • Obst, P., Zinkiewicz, L., & Smith, S. (2002). Sense of community in science fiction fandom, Part 1: Understanding sense of community in an international community of interest. Journal of Community Psychology, 30, 87-103.
  • Octagon (2013). Second screen research: “The white spaces”. Retrieved from: http://europe.octagon.com/pdf/OCTA8ON_SECOND_SCREEN_RESEARCH.pdf
  • Olds, J., & Schwartz, R. S. (2009). The lonely American: Drifting apart in the twenty-first century. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
  • Oliver, R.L., & Swan, J.E. (1989). Consumer perceptions of interpersonal equity and satisfaction in transactions: A field survey approach. The Journal of Marketing, 53, 21-35.
  • O’Shea, M., & Alonso, A.D. (2011). Opportunity or obstacle? A preliminary study of professional sport organisations in the age of social media. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 10, 196-212.
  • Pedersen, P. (2014) A commentary on social media research from the perspective of a sport communication journal editor. Communication & Sport, 1, 55-67,
  • Pronschinske, M., Groza, M., & Walker, M. (2012). Attracting Facebook ‘fans’: The importance of authenticity and engagement as a social networking strategy for professional sport teams. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 21, 221–231.
  • Rohampton, J. (2017, February 6). How two millennials built a multimillion-dollar company using social media. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/jimmyrohampton/2017/02/06/how-two-millennials-built-a-multimillion-dollar-company-using-social-media/#724fae2119a0
  • Sharratt, M., & Usoro, A. (2003). Understanding knowledge-sharing in online communities of practice. Electronic Journal on Knowledge Management, 1(2), 187-196.
  • Shilbury, D., Westerbeek, H., Quick, S., Funk, D., & Karg, A. (2014). Strategic sport marketing (4th ed.). Sydney: Allen & Unwin.
  • Smith, R.L., & Smith, K.D. (2012). Identity in Twitter’s hashtag culture: A sport media consumption case study. International Journal of Sport Communication, 5, 539-557.
  • Stavros, C., Meng, M.D., Westberg, K., & Farrelly, F. (2014). Understanding fan motivation for interacting on social media. Sport Management Review, 17, 455-469.
  • Stoldt, G.C., & Vermillion, M. (2013). The organizational roles of college athletics communicators: Relationship to the use and perceptions of social media. International Journal of Sport Communication, 6, 185-202.
  • Stryker, S. (1968). Identity salience and role performance. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 4, 558-564.
  • Stryker, S. (1980). Symbolic Interactionalism: A social Structural Version. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin Cummings.
  • Stryker, S. & Burke, P.J. (2000). The past, present, and future of an identity theory. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63(4), 284-297.
  • Swanson, S.R., Gwinner, K., Larson, B.V., & Janda, S. (2003). Motivations of college student game attendance and word-of-mouth behavior: the impact of gender differences. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 12(3), 151-162.
  • Swyers, H. (2010). Wrigley Regulars: Finding community in the bleachers?, University of Illinois Press: Champaign, IL.
  • Tajefel, H. (1978). Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations. London: Academic Press.
  • Trail, G.T., Anderson, Fink, J. (2000). A theoretical model of sport spectator consumption behavior. International Journal of Sport Management, 1, 154-180.
  • Tyler, B.D., & Cobbs, J.B. (2015). Rival conceptions of rivalry: Why some competitions mean more than others, European Sport Management Quarterly, 15, 227-250.
  • Walker, M., & Kent, A. (2009). Do fans care? Assessing the influence of corporate social responsibility on consumer attitudes in the sport industry. Journal of Sport Management, 23, 743-769.
  • Walsh, P., Clavio, G., Lovell, M.D., & Blaszka, M. (2013). Differences in event brand personality between social media users and non-users. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 22, 214–223.
  • Wann, D.L., & Grieve, F.G. (2005). Biased evaluations of in-group and out-group spectator behavior at sporting events: The importance of team identification and threats to social identity. Journal of Social Psychology, 145, 531-545. DOI:10.3200/SOCP.145.5.531-546
  • Warner, S. (2012). Sport and Community. In G.B. Cunningham & J.N. Singer (Eds.), Sociology of sport and physical activity (2nd ed., pp. 237-254). College Station, TX: Center for Sport Management Research and Education.
  • Warner, S. (2016). Sport and Sense of Community Theory. In Cunningham, G.B., Fink, J., & Doherty, A. (Eds.), Routledge handbook of theory in sport management (pp. 189-198). New York, NY.
  • Warner, S., & Dixon, M.A. (2011). Understanding sense of community from an athlete’s perspective. Journal of Sport Management, 25, 258-272.
  • Warner, S., & Dixon, M.A. (2013). Sport and community on campus: Constructing a sport experience that matters. Journal of College Student Development, 54, 283-298. DOI: 10.1353/csd.2013.0044
  • Warner, S. & Dixon, M.A. (2015). Competition, gender and the sport experience: an exploration among college athletes, Sport, Education and Society, 20, 527-545. DOI: 10.1080/13573322.2013.774273
  • Warner, S., Dixon, M.A., & Chalip, L C. (2012). The impact of formal versus informal sport: Understanding the social implication on the community. Journal of Community Psychology, 40, 983-1003.
  • Warner, S., Dixon, M., & Leierer, S. (2015). Using youth sport to enhance parents’ sense of community. Journal of Applied Sport Management, 7(1), 45-67.
  • Warner, S., Kerwin, S., & Walker, M. (2013). Examining Sense of Community in Sport: Developing the Multidimensional ‘SCS’ Scale. Journal of Sport Management, 27, 349-362.
  • Warner, S., Shapiro, S., Dixon, M A., Ridinger, L.L. & Harrison, S. (2011). The football factor: Shaping community on campus. Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics, 4, 236-256.
  • Waters, R.D., Burke, K.A., Jackson, Z.J., & Buning, J.D. (2010). Using stewardship to cultivate fandom online: Comparing how national football league teams use their web sites and Facebook to engage their fans. International Journal of Communication, 3, 163-177.
  • Williams, J., & Chinn, S.J. (2010). Meeting relationship-marketing goals through social media: A conceptual model for sport marketers relationship-marketing process. International Journal of Sport Communication, 3, 422–437.
  • Witkemper, C., Lim, C.H., & Waldburger, A. (2012). Social media and sports marketing: Examining the motivations and constraints of Twitter users. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 21, 170–183.
  • Yoshida, M., Heere, B., & Gordon, B. (2015). Predicting behavioral loyalty through community: Why other fans are more important than our own intentions, our satisfaction, and the team itself. Journal of Sport Management, 29, 318-333. DOI:10.1123/jsm.2013-0306

Discover more from International Journal of Sport Management

Subscribe now to keep reading and get access to the full archive.

Continue reading