International Journal of Sport Management

Increasing Sport Engagement through Virtual Simulators: The Influence of Virtual Golf on Self-Efficacy and Motivation

Mi Roung Chung, Jon Welty Peachey

Abstract: The advancement of technology has facilitated access to sport by alleviating some leisure constraints. However, there are still intrapersonal and interpersonal barriers that need to be overcome in order for individuals to engage in sport. In the leisure hierarchy, intrapersonal constraints, which are the constraints internal to the individual including perceptions related to limited abilities and skills (e.g., self-efficacy), have the strongest influence on whether or not individuals decide to participate in an activity. Studies have revealed that when individuals overcome leisure constraints, they are more motivated to pursue an activity. With the advancement of technology some of the constraints have been mitigated, however, few studies have examined how self-efficacy and motivation can be improved through technology. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to examine how technology can influence people’s self-efficacy and their motivation to engage in sport. A quasi-experimental study was carried out where participants played beginner and professional mode simulated golf courses. Pre- and post-tests revealed that simulators can be useful in manipulating and determining participants’ self-efficacy and motivation to play golf, especially for individuals with low self-efficacy to play golf. This study is significant in that it provides sport marketers with innovative avenues to attract new customers into a sport, and from a theoretical standpoint, it demonstrates that technology can improve self-efficacy and motivation in participants who do not have previous experience in the sport.

Keywords: Self-efficacy, motivation, virtual simulator, golf, leisure constraints

Citation: Chung, M. R., & Welty Peachey, J. (2020). Increasing sport engagement through virtual simulators: The influence of virtual golf on self-efficacy and motivation. International Journal of Sport Management, 21(3), 193-216.

References

  • Abbas, Z.A., & North, J.S. (2018). Good-vs. poor-trial feedback in motor learning: The role of self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation across levels of task difficulty. Learning and Instruction, 55, 105-112.
  • Alexandris, K., & Carroll, B. (1997). An analysis of leisure constraints based on different recreational sport participation levels: results from a study in Greece. Leisure Sciences, 19(1), 1-15.
  • Alexandris, K., Du, J., Funk, D., & Theodorakis, N. D. (2017). Leisure constraints and the psychological continuum model: a study among recreational mountain skiers. Leisure Studies, 36(5), 670-683.
  • Alexandris, K., Funk, D.C., & Pritchard, M. (2011). The impact of constraints on motivation, activity attachment, and skier intentions to continue. Journal of Leisure Research, 43(1), 56-79.
  • Alexandris, K., Kouthouris, C., Funk, D., & Chatzigianni, E. (2008). Examining the relationships between leisure constraints, involvement and attitudinal loyalty among Greek recreational skiers. European Sport Management Quarterly, 8(3), 247-264.
  • Alexandris, K., Tsorbatzoudis, C., & Grouios, G. (2002). Perceived constraints on recreational sport participation: Investigating their relationship with intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation and amotivation. Journal of Leisure Research, 34(3), 233-252.
  • Ananthanarayan, S., & Siek, K.A. (2012, May). Persuasive wearable technology design for health and wellness. In 2012 6th International Conference on Pervasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare (Pervasive Health) and Workshops (pp. 236-240). IEEE.
  • Anderson, E.S., Wojcik, J.R., Winett, R.A., & Williams, D.M. (2006). Social-cognitive determinants of physical activity: the influence of social support, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation among participants in a church-based health promotion study. Health Psychology, 25(4), 510-520.
  • Annesi, J.J., & Mazas, J. (1997). Effects of virtual reality-enhanced exercise equipment on adherence and exercise-induced feeling states. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 85(3), 835-844.
  • Ashford, S., Edmunds J., & French, D.P. (2010). What is the best way to change self-efficacy to promote lifestyle and recreational physical activity? A systematic review with meta-analysis. British Journal of Health Psychology, 15, 265-288.
  • Balaska, P., Alexandris, K., Kouthouris, C., & Polatidou, P. (2012). An examination of how constraints and processes of change affect stages of behavioural change for recreational sport participation. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 12(3-4), 275-293.
  • Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A Social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
  • Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44(9), 1175-1184.
  • Bandura, A., & Cervone, D. (1983). Self-evaluative and self-efficacy mechanisms governing the motivational effects of goal systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(5), 1017.
  • Boyle, R., & Haynes, R. (2004). Football in the new media age. New York, NY: Routledge.
  • Bum, C.H., Mahoney, T., & Choi, C. (2018). A Comparative Analysis of Satisfaction and Sustainable Participation in Actual Leisure Sports and Virtual Reality Leisure Sports. Sustainability, 10(10), 1-12.
  • Carroll, B., & Alexandris, K. (1997). Perception of constraints and strength of motivation: Their relationship to recreational sport participation in Greece. Journal of Leisure Research, 29(3), 279-299.
  • Carroll, N., Richardson, I., Moloney, M., & O’Reilly, P. (2018). Bridging healthcare education and technology solution development through experiential innovation. Health and Technology, 8(4), 255-261.
  • Chang, J. (2018, August 8). An inside look at South Korea—It’s different over here. Retrieved from https://mygolfspy.com/an-inside-look-at-golf-in-korea-its-different-over-there
  • Chen, G., & Gully, S.M. (1997, August). Specific self-efficacy, general self-efficacy, and self-esteem: Are they distinguishable constructs? Paper presented at the 57th Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management, Boston.
  • Chen, G., Gully, S.M., & Eden, D. (2001). Validation of a new general self-efficacy scale. Organizational Research Methods, 4(1), 62-83.
  • Choe, S.H. (2008, June 10). Where the growth of lush fairways has no bounds. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/06/10/world/asia/10golf.html
  • Choi, C., Greenwell, T.C., Hums, M.A., & Hambrick, M.E. (2019). Understanding consumer behaviors in virtual golf: Differences in leisure constraints. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 28(1), 46-57.
  • Cleary, T.J., & Zimmerman, B.J. (2001). Self-regulation differences during athletic practice by experts, non-experts, and novices. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13(2), 185-206.
  • Crawford, D.W., & Godbey, G. (1987). Reconceptualizing barriers to family leisure. Leisure Sciences, 9(2), 119-127.
  • Crawford, D.W., Jackson, E.L., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13(4), 309-320.
  • Crawford, D., Jackson, E., & Godbey, G. (1991). A hierarchical model of leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 13, 309-320.
  • Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1980). The empirical exploration of intrinsic motivational processes. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 13, pp. 39-80). New York, NY: Academic Press.
  • Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). The general causality orientations scale: self-determination in personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 109-134.
  • Doran, A., & Pomfret, G. (2019). Exploring efficacy in personal constraint negotiation: An ethnography of mountaineering tourists. Tourist Studies, 19(4), 475-795.
  • Ede, A., Sullivan, P.J., & Feltz, D L. (2017). Self-doubt: Uncertainty as a motivating factor on effort in an exercise endurance task. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 28, 31-36.
  • Fan, W., & Williams, C.M. (2010). The effects of parental involvement on students’ academic self‐efficacy, engagement and intrinsic motivation. Educational Psychology, 30(1), 53-74.
  • Feltz, D.L. (1992). Understanding motivation in sport: A self-efficacy perspective. In G.C. Roberts (Ed.), Motivation in sport and exercise (pp. 107-128). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
  • Feltz, D.L., Short, S.E., & Sullivan, P.J. (2008). Self-efficacy in sport. Human Kinetics.
  • Fornell, C., & Lacker, D.F (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50.
  • Gilbert, D., & Hudson, S. (2000). Tourism demand constraints: A skiing participation. Annals of Tourism Research, 27(4), 906-925.
  • Godbey, G., Crawford, D.W., & Shen, X.S. (2010). Assessing hierarchical leisure constraints theory after two decades. Journal of Leisure Research, 42(2), 111–134.
  • Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., and Anderson, R.E. (2010) Multivariate data analysis 7th ed. New Jersey, NJ: Prentice Hall.
  • Han, H., Hwang, J., & Woods, D.P. (2014). Choosing virtual–rather than real–leisure activities: An examination of the decision–making process in screen-golf participants. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 19(4), 428-450.
  • Hudson, S., Walker, G J., Simpson, B., & Hinch, T. (2013). The influence of ethnicity and self-construal on leisure constraints. Leisure Sciences, 35(2), 145-166.
  • Ihsan, S., Ekici, S., Soyer, F., & Eskiler, E. (2015). Does self-confidence link to motivation? A study in field hockey athletes. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 10(1), 24-35.
  • Jackson, E.L. (1991). Leisure constraints/constrained leisure: Special issue introduction. Journal of Leisure Research, 23(4), 279-285.
  • Jourden, F.J., Bandura, A., & Banfield, J.T. (1991). The impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulatory factors and motor skill acquisition. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 13(3), 213-226.
  • Jung, J., Park, H., Kang, S., Lee, S., & Hahn, M. (2010). Measurement of initial motion of a flying golf ball with multi-exposure images for screen-golf. IEEE Transactions on Consumer Electronics, 56(2), 516–523.
  • Kang, S. (2015, August). Trend of the Sports Convergence Technology for Health Promotion. In 2015 5th International Conference on IT Convergence and Security (ICITCS) (pp. 1-3). IEEE.
  • Kavussanu, M., & Roberts, G.C. (1996). Motivation in physical activity contexts: The relationship of perceived motivational climate to intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 18(3), 264-280.
  • Kim, M., Park, S., & Park, B., (2018). Information Sciences & Application 2018: ICISA 2018. K. Kim & N. Baek (Eds). Singapore: Springer.
  • Lee, H. ., Chung, S., & Lee, W.H. (2013). Presence in virtual golf simulators: the effects of presence on perceived enjoyment, perceived value, and behavioral intention. New Media & Society, 15(6), 930-946.
  • Liang, S., Schuckert, M., Law, R., & Masiero, L. (2017). The relevance of mobile tourism and information technology: an analysis of recent trends and future research directions. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 34(6), 732-748.
  • Liebermann, D.G., Katz, L., Hughes, M.D., Bartlett, R.M., McClements, J., & Franks, I.M. (2002). Advances in the application of information technology to sport performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20(10), 755-769.
  • Loland, S. (2002). Technology in sport: Three ideal-typical views and their implication. European Journal of Sport, 2(1), 1-11.
  • Martens, M.P., & Webber, S.N. (2002). Psychometric properties of the Sport Motivation Scale: An evaluation with college varsity athletes from the US. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24(3), 254-270.
  • McAuley, E. (1992). The role of efficacy cognitions in the prediction of exercise behavior in middle-aged adults. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15(1), 65-88.
  • McAuley, E., Lox, C., Rudolph, D., & Travis, A. (1994). Self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation in exercising middle-aged adults. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 13(4), 355-370.
  • Orji, R., & Moffatt, K. (2018). Persuasive technology for health and wellness: State-of-the-art and emerging trends. Health Informatics Journal, 24(1), 66-91.
  • Orsega-Smith, E.M., Payne, L.L., Mowen, A.J., Ho, C.H., & Godbey, G.C. (2007). The role of social support and self-efficacy in shaping the leisure time physical activity of older adults. Journal of Leisure Research, 39(4), 705-727.
  • Palmer, K., Chiviacowsky, S., & Wulf, G. (2016). Enhanced expectancies facilitate golf putting. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 229-232.
  • Pelletier, L.G., Tuson, K.M., Fortier, M.S., Vallerand, R.J., Briere, N.M., & Blais, M.R. (1995). Toward a new measure of intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, and amotivation in sports: The Sport Motivation Scale (SMS). Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17(1), 35-53.
  • Raymore, L.A. (2002). Facilitators to leisure. Journal of Leisure research, 34(1), 37-51.
  • Richard, M., Christina, M.F., Deborah, L.S., Rubio, N., & Kennon, M S. (1997). Intrinsic motivation and exercise adherence. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 28(4), 335-354.
  • Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54-67.
  • Schunk, D. (1995). Self-efficacy, motivation, and performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 7(2), 112-137.
  • Stevens, J.P. (2009). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences (5th ed.). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis Group.
  • Tsai, E.H.L., & Coleman, D.J. (2009). The influence of constraints and self-efficacies on participation in regular active recreation. Leisure Sciences, 31(4), 364-383.
  • Won, D., & Hwang, S. (2008). The Course to Tee off: Golfers’ Participation Constraints, Age, Income, and Leisure Identity Salience. The ICHPER-SD Journal of Research in Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport & Dance,3(2), 55.
  • Wulf, G., & Lewthwaite, R. (2016). Optimizing performance through intrinsic motivation and attention for learning: The OPTIMAL theory of motor learning. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(5), 1382-1414.
  • Wulf, G., Lewthwaite, R., & Hooyman, A. (2013). Can ability conceptualizations alter the impact of social comparison in motor learning? Journal of Motor Learning and Development, 1(1), 20-30.

Discover more from International Journal of Sport Management

Subscribe now to keep reading and get access to the full archive.

Continue reading