Christopher R. Barnhill, J. Michael Martinez

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine how various information sources influence psychological contract terms of employees in sport-based small business enterprises (SBEs). A total of 226 front office employees from Minor League Baseball franchises completed a questionnaire measuring psychological contract obligations and the influence of internal and external information sources. Hierarchical linear regression was used to test proposed hypotheses. Terms related to job content were influenced by information received from non-organizational social media accounts. Work-life balance terms were influenced by organizational outsiders, and information from formal job descriptions were influential over rewards related terms. Organizational mission documents contained information that influenced all psychological contract dimensions, but information from direct managers was not influential over any terms for respondents. Results suggest employees in sport-based SBEs avoid communication with managers, but instead choose to seek information from other sources both within and outside the organization.

Keywords: Psychological contracts, information seeking, sensemaking, internal marketing

Citation: Barnhill, C. R., & Martinez, J. M. (2018). Information seeking during psychological contract development in sport-based small business enterprises: An examination of front office employees in minor league baseball. International Journal of Sport Management, 19(4), 437-461.

References

• Agarwal, U., & Bhargava, S. (2009). Reviewing the relationship between human resource practices and psychological contract and their impact on employee attitude and behaviours: A conceptual model. Journal of European Industrial Training, 33(1), 4–31. http://doi.org/10.1108/03090590910924351
• Alcover, C.-M., Rico, R., Turnley, W.H., & Bolino, M.C. (2017). Understanding the changing nature of psychological contracts in 21st century organizations. Organizational Psychology Review, 7(1), 4–35. http://doi.org/10.1177/2041386616628333
• Argyris, C. (1960). Understanding organizational behavior. Homewood, IL: Dorsey Press, Inc.
• Atkinson, C. (2008). An exploration of small firm psychological contracts. Work, Employment and Society, 22(3), 447–465. http://doi.org/10.1177/0950017008093480
• Atkinson, C., Mallett, O., & Wapshott, R. (2016). “You try to be a fair employer”: Regulation and ment relationships in medium-sized firms. International Small Business Journal, 34(1), 16–33. http://doi.org/10.1177/0266242614541992
• Bal, P.M., De Lange, A.H., Jansen, P.G. W., & Van Der Velde, M.E.G. (2008). Psychological contract breach and job attitudes: A meta-analysis of age as a moderator. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(1), 143–158. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2007.10.005
• Barnhill, C.R., & Brown, L.E. (2017). Employee expectations of CSR: A psychological contracts perspective. International Journal of Sport Management, 18(2), 165–182.
• Barnhill, C.R., & Turner, B.A. (2013). Broken promises: The effect of psychological contract violation on student-athlete trust and intentions to leave their team. Journal of Intercollegiate Sport, 6, 179–195.
• Bennett, R., & Barkensjo, A. (2005). Internal marketing, negative experiences, and volunteers commitment to providing high-quality services in UK helping and caring charitable organization. Voluntas: International Journal of Voluntary and Nonprofit Organizations, 16(3), 251–274.
• Brown, A.D., Colville, I., & Pye, A. (2015). Making sense of sensemaking in organization studies. Organization Studies, 36(2), 265–277. http://doi.org/10.1177/0170840614559259
• Cantisano, G.T., Dominguez, J.F.M., & Depolo, M. (2008). Psychological contract breach and outcomes: Combining meta-analysis and structural equation models. Psicothema, 20(3), 487–496.
• Carmon, A.F. (2013). Is it necessary to be clear? An examination of strategic ambiguity in family business mission statements. Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 14(1), 87–96. http://doi.org/10.1080/17459435.2013.835346
• Cavanaugh, M.., & Noe, R.A. (1999). Antecedents and consequences of relational components of the new psychological contract. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 323–340.
• Chaudhry, A., Wayne, S.J., & Schalk, R. (2009). A sensemaking model of employee evaluation of psychological contract fulfillment: When and how do employees respond to change? Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 45(4), 498–520.
• Colville, I., Brown, A.D., & Pye, A. (2012). Simplexity: Sensemaking, organizing and storytelling for our time. Human Relations, 65(1), 5–15. http://doi.org/10.1177/0018726711425617
• Dabos, G.E., & Rousseau, D.M. (2013). Psychological contracts and informal networks in organizations: The effects of social status and local ties. Human Resource Management, 52(4), 485–510. http://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.21540
• Dadi, V. (2012). Promises, expectations, and obligations – Which terms best constitute the psychological contract ? International Journal of Business and Social Science, 3(19), 88–100.
• De Hauw, S., & De Vos, A. (2010). Millennials’ career perspective and psychological contract expectations: Does the recession lead to lowered expectations? Journal of Business and Psychology, 25(2), 293–302. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-010-9162-9
• De Ruiter, M., Schalk, R., & Blomme, R.J. (2016). Manager responses to employee dissent about psychological contract breach: A dyadic process approach. Management Communication Quarterly, 30(2), 188–217. http://doi.org/10.1177/0893318915623238
• De Vos, A., Buyens, D., & Schalk, R. (2003). Psychological contract development during organizational socialization: Adaptation to reality and the role of reciprocity. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24(5), 537–559. http://doi.org/10.1002/job.205
• De Vos, A., Buyens, D., & Schalk, R. (2005). Making sense of the new employment relationship: Psychological contract-related information seeking and the role of work values and locus of control. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 13(1), 41–52.
• De Vos, A., & Freese, C. (2011). Sensemaking during organizational entry: Changes in newcomer information seeking and the relationship with psychological contract fulfilment. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 84, 288–314.
• DeBode, J.D., Mossholder, K.W., & Walker, A.G. (2017). Fulfilling employees’ psychological contracts: Organizational socialization’s role. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 38(1). http://doi.org/10.1108/LODJ-02-2015-0014
• Delcampo, R.G., Rogers, K.M., & Jacobson, K.J.L. (2015). Psychological contract breach, perceived discrimination, and ethnic identification in Hispanic business professionals. Journal of Managerial Issues, 22(2), 220–238.
• Eilam-Shamir, G., & Yaakobi, E. (2014). Effects of early employment experiences on anticipated psychological contracts. Personnel Review, 43(4), 553–572. http://doi.org/10.1108/PR-12-2012-0213
• Foreman, S.K., & Money, A.H. (1995). Internal marketing: Concepts, measurement, and application. Journal of Marketing Management, 11, 755–788.
• Freese, C., & Schalk, R. (1997). Tilburgse Psychologisch Contract Vragenlijst [Tilburg Psychological Contract Questionnaire]. Tilburg, Netherlands: Tilburg University.
• Freese, C., & Schalk, R. (2008). How to measure the psychological contract? A critical criteria-based review of measures. South African Journal of Psychology, 38(2), 269–286.
• Freese, C., Schalk, R., & Croon, M. (2008). De Tilburgse Psychologisch Contract Vragenlijst. Gedrag En Organisatie, 21(3), 278–294.
• Guest, D.E., & Conway, N. (2002). Communicating the psychological contract: The employer perspective. Human Resource Management, 12(2), 22–38.
• Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B., & Anderson, R.E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Harman, A., & Doherty, A. J. (2014). The psychological contract of volunteer youth sport coaches. Journal of Sport Management, 28(6), 687–699. http://doi.org/10.1123/JSM.2013-0146
• Hart, Z.P. (2012). Message content and sources during organizational socialization. Journal of Business Communication, 49(3), 191–209. http://doi.org/10.1177/0021943612446731
• Hermida, R., & Luchman, J.N. (2013). The moderating role of locus of causality in the relationship between source of information and psychological contract breach perceptions. Journal of Business and Psychology, 28(2), 221–232. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-012-9274-5
• Herriot, P., & Pemberton, C. (1995). New deals: The revolution in managerial careers. West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons.
• Ho, V.T. (2005). Social influence on evaluations of psychological contract fulfillment. Academy of Management Review, 30(1), 113–128. http://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.2005.15281438
• Ho, V.T., & Levesque, L.L. (2005). With a little help from my friends (and substitutes): Social referents and influence in psychological contract fulfillment. Organization Science, 16(3), 275–289. http://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1050.0121
• Ho, V.T., Rousseau, D.M., & Levesque, L.L. (2006). Social networks and the psychological contract: Structural holes, cohesive ties, and beliefs regarding employer obligations. Human Relations, 59(4), 459–481. http://doi.org/10.1177/0018726706065370
• Jones, E., Watson, B., Gardner, J., & Gallois, C. (2004). Organizational communication: challenges for the new century. Journal of Communication, 54(4), 722–750.
• Joseph, W.B. (1996). Internal marketing builds service quality. Journal of Health Care Marketing, 16(1), 54–59. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/openview/f61adc58f2f9f48801d8c10a43163f5f/1?pq-origsite=gscholar
• Kilburn, A.J. (2009). Building quality internal exchange: The role of the organization and the individual in internal customer orientation. Academy of Marketing Studies Journal, 16(1), 79–87.
• Kopaneva, I., & Sias, P. M. (2015). Lost in translation: Employee and organiational constructions of mission and vision. Management Communication Quarterly, 29(3), 358–384. http://doi.org/10.1177/0893318915581648
• Koys, D.J. (2001). The effects of employee satisfaction, organizational citizenship behavior, and turnover on organizational effectiveness: A unit-level, longitudinal study. Personnel Psychology, 54(1), 101–114. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2001.tb00087.x
• Lee, C., Liu, J., Rousseau, D.M., Hui, C., & Chen, Z.X. (2011). Inducements, contributions, and fulfillment in new employee psychological contracts. Human Resource Management, 50(2), 201–226. http://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20415
• Levinson, H., Price, C.R., Munden, K J., & Solley, C.M. (1962). Men, Management, and Mental Health. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
• Martinez, J.M., Stinson, J.L., & Jubenville, C.B. (2011). Internal marketing perceptions in intercollegiate athletics and their influence on organizational commitment. Journal of Issues in Intercollegiate Athletics, 4, 171–189.
• Morrison, E.W. (1993). Newcomer information seeking: Exploring types, modes, sources, and outcomes. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), 557–589.
• Morrison, E.W. (2002). Information seeking within organizations. Human Communication Research, 28(2), 229–242. http://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/28.2.229
• Nadin, S., & Cassell, C. (2007). New deal for old? Exploring the psychological contract in a small firm environment. International Small Business Journal, 25(4), 417–443. http://doi.org/10.1177/0266242607078587
• Ng, T.W.H., & Feldman, D.C. (2009). Age, work experience, and the psychological contract. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(8), 1053–1075. http://doi.org/10.1002/job.599
• O’Leary-Kelly, A.M., Henderson, K.E., Anand, V., & Ashforth, B.E. (2014). Psychological contracts in a nontraditional industry: Exploring the implications for psychological contract development. Group & Organization Management, 39(3), 326–360. http://doi.org/10.1177/1059601114525851
• Odio, M., & Kerwin, S. (2017). Permeability of sport job sectors: An analysis of careers across boundaries. International Journal of Sport Management, 18(3), 330–347.
• Parzefall, M.-R., & Coyle-Shapiro, J.A.M. (2011). Making sense of psychological contract breach. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 26(1), 12–27. http://doi.org/10.1108/02683941111099592
• Restubog, S.L.D., Bordia, P., Tang, R.L., & Krebs, S.A. (2010). Investigating the moderating effects of leader-member exchange in the psychological contract breach-employee performance relationship: A test of two competing perspectives. British Journal of Management, 21, 422–437. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8551.2009.00673.x
• Rezania, D., & Gurney, R. (2016). The effect of coaching practices on psychological contract fulfillment of student-athletes. Physical Culture and Sport, Studies and Research, 71(1), 21–29. http://doi.org/10.1515/pcssr-2016-0016
• Robinson, S.L., & Morrison, E.W. (2000). The development of psychological contract breach and violation: A longitudinal study. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 525–546.
• Rousseau, D.M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organizations: Understanding written and unwritten agreements. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Rousseau, D.M. (2000). Psychological contract inventory technical report. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon University.
• Rousseau, D.M. (2001). Schema, promise, and mutuality: The building blocks of the psychological contract. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 511–541.
• Rousseau, D.M. (2004). Psychological contracts in the workplace: Understanding the ties that motivate. Academy of Management Executive, 18(1), 120–127.
• Rousseau, D.M., & Tijoriwala, S.A. (1998). Assessing psychological contracts: Issues, alternatives, and measures. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 19, 679–695.
• Scholarios, D., Lockyer, C., & Johnson, H. (2003). Anticipatory socialisation: The effect of recruitment and selection experiences on career expectations. Career Development International, 8(4), 182–197. Retrieved from 10.1108/13620430310482562%5Cnhttp://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=psyh&AN=2009-20339-003&lang=es&site=ehost-live
• Sherman, U.P., & Morley, M.J. (2015). On the formation of the psychological contract: A schema theory perspective. Group & Organization Management, 40(2), 160–192. http://doi.org/10.1177/1059601115574944
• Sias, P.M., & Wyers, T.D. (2001). Employee uncertainty and information-seeking in newly formed expansion organizations. Management Communication Quarterly, 14(4), 549–573.
• Small Business Council. (2004). Evaluation of government employment regulations and their impact on small business. London.
• Smith, B.G., Stumberger, N., Guild, J., & Dugan, A. (2017). What’s at stake? An analysis of employee social media engagement and the influence of power and social stake. Public Relations Review, 43(5), 978–988. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.pubrev.2017.04.010
• Stein, D.J. (1992). Schemas in the cognitive and clinical sciences: An integrative construct. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 2(1), 45–63. http://doi.org/10.1037/h0101236
• Taylor, T., Darcy, S., Hoye, R., & Cuskelly, G. (2006). Using psychological contract theory to explore issues in effective volunteer management. European Sport Management Quarterly, 6(2), 123–147. http://doi.org/10.1080/16184740600954122
• Teboul, J.B. (1995). Determinants of new hire information-seeking during organizational encounter. Western Journal of Communication, 59(Fall), 305–325.
• Tomprou, M., & Nikolaou, I. (2011). A model of psychological contract creation upon organizational entry. Career Development International, 16(4), 342–363. http://doi.org/10.1108/13620431111158779
• Turnley, W.H., & Feldman, D.C. (1999). The impact of psychological contract violations on exit, voice, loyalty, and neglect. Human Relations, 52(7), 895–922.
• Yates, J., & Orlikowski, W.J. (1992). Genres of organizational communication: A structural approach to studying communication and media. Academy of Management Review, 17(2), 299–326. http://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.1992.4279545
• Zhao, H., Wayne, S.J., Glibkowski, B.C., & Bravo, J. (2007). The impact of psychological contract breach on work related outcomes: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 60, 647–680.