International Journal of Sport Management

Commercialized Fitness Clubs: Gender and Competitive Athletic Identities

Christine E. Wegner, Heather J. Lawrence-Benedict, Jeremy S. Jordan, Norm O’Reilly

Abstract: Sport and physical activity are still spaces in which gender norms inform preferences and participation. But recent literature has found that certain organized spaces, such as commercialized competitive fitness clubs, may be creating a place in which a collective identity can break down gender norms and provide new opportunities for women. We surveyed more than 30,000 participants of the CrossFit Games Open and analyzed men’s and women’s athletic identity and behavioral involvement with CrossFit. We found that men’s and women’s identity with the activity are constructed differently, and that women overall have more salient CrossFit identities. However, gender still plays a role in participants’ behaviors, as women engage with the activity less overall. These kinds of clubs, then, may be important tools for creating opportunity for women in sport, but further research is needed to understand the specific mechanisms through which this can be achieved.

Keywords: athletic identity, gender, commercialized fitness clubs

Citation: Wegner, C. E., Lawrence-Benedict, H. J., Jordan, J. S., & O’Reilly, N. (2020). Commercialized fitness clubs: Gender and competitive athletic identities. International Journal of Sport Management, 21(2), 151-173.

References:

  • Aitchison, C.C. (Ed.). (2007). Sport and gender identities: Masculinities, femininities and sexualities. Routledge.
  • Allender, S., Cowburn, G., & Foster, C. (2006). Understanding participation in sport and physical activity among children and adults: a review of qualitative studies. Health education research, 21(6), 826-835.
  • Atkinson, M. (2007). Playing with fire: Masculinity, health, and sports supplements. Sociology of Sport Journal, 24(2), 165-186.
  • Berger, I.E., O’Reilly, N., Parent, M., Seguin, B. and Hernandez, A. (2008), “Determinants of sport participation among youth in Canada”, Sport Management Review, Vol. 11 No. 3, pp. 277-308.
  • Brace-Govan, J. (2004). Weighty matters: Control of women’s access to physical strength. The Sociological Review, 52(4), 503-531.
  • Brickson, S.L. (2013). Athletes, best friends, and social activists: An integrative model accounting for the role of identity in organizational identification. Organization Science, 24(1), 226-245.
  • Brown, A.D., & Coupland, C. (2015). Identity Threats, Identity Work and Elite Professionals. Organization Studies, 36(10), 1315-1336.
  • Burke, P. J. (1991). Identity processes and social stress. American sociological review, 56(6), 836-849.
  • Burke, P.J., & Stets, J.E. (2009). Identity theory. Oxford University Press.
  • Burke, P.J., & Tully, J.C. (1977). The measurement of role identity. Social forces, 55(4), 881-897.
  • Canadian Heritage (2013). Sport Participation 2010 Research Paper. Catalogue No. CH24-1/2012EPDF. http://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2013/pcch/CH24-1-2012-eng.pdf.
  • Carr, J. (20, March 2016). Indian Wells CEO says women tennis players should get on their knees and be thankful men’s tour ‘carried this sport’. Orange County Register, retrieved from https://www.ocregister.com/2016/03/20/indian-wells-ceo-says-women-tennis-players-should-get-on-their-knees-and-be-thankful-mens-tour-carried-this-sport/
  • Caudwell, J. (2003). Sporting gender: Women’s footballing bodies as sites/sights for the (re) articulation of sex, gender, and desire. Sociology of sport journal, 20(4), 371-386.
  • Cieslak, T., Fink, J., & Pastore, D. (2005). Measuring the athletic identity construct: scale development and validation. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27 (Suppl.), S48.
  • Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Vol. 2. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
  • Collins, L.H. (2002). Working out the contraditions: Feminism and aerobics. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 26(1), 85-109. doi: 10.1177/0193723502261006.
  • Cooky, C., Messner, M.A., & Hextrum, R.H. (2013). Women play sport, but not on TV a longitudinal study of televised news media. Communication & Sport, 1(3), 203-230.
  • Christopherson, N., Janning, M., & McConnell, E.D. (2002). Two kicks forward, one kick back: A content analysis of media discourses on the 1999 Women’s World Cup Soccer Championship. Sociology of Sport Journal, 19(2), 170-188
  • Connell, R.W., & Messerchmidt, W. (2005). Hegemonic masculinity: Rethinking the concept. Gender and Society, 19(6), 828-859, doi: 10.1177/0891243205278639
  • Crossfit, Inc. (2018a). About the games. Retrieved April 6, 2018 from https://games.crossfit.com/about-the-games
  • Crossfit, Inc. (2018b). CrossFit Games leaderboard. Retrieved April 6, 2018 from https://games.crossfit.com/leaderboard/open/2018
  • Crossfit, Inc. (2018c). 2018 Rulebook released. Retrieved April 6, 2018 from https://games.crossfit.com/article/2018-rulebook-released/games
  • CrossFit, Inc. (2019). What is CrossFit. Retrieved April 1, 2020 from https://www.crossfit.com/what-is-crossfit
  • Dilley, R.E., & Scraton, S.J. (2010). Women, climbing and serious leisure. Leisure Studies, 29(2), 125-141.
  • Dworkin, S.L. (2003). A woman’s place is in the… cardiovascular room? Gender relations, the body, and the gym. Athletic intruders: Ethnographic research on women, culture, and exercise, 131-158.
  • Ellemers, N., Kortekaas, P., & Ouwerkerk, J.W. (1999). Self‐categorisation, commitment to the group and group self‐esteem as related but distinct aspects of social identity. European journal of social psychology, 29(2‐3), 371-389.
  • Foster, G., O’Reilly, N., Shimizu, C., Khosia, N., & Murray, R. (2014). Determinants of regional sport network television ratings in MLB, NBA and NHL. Journal of Sport Management, 28(3), 356-375.
  • Gill, E. L. (2011). The Rutgers women’s basketball and Don Imus controversy (RUIMUS): White privilege, new racism, and the implications for college sport management. Journal of Sport Management, 5(2), 118-130.
  • Hardin, M., & Greer, J.D. (2009). The influence of gender-role socialization, media use and sports participation on perceptions of gender-appropriate sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 32(2), 207.
  • He, H., & Brown, A.D. (2013). Organizational identity and organizational identification: A review of the literature and suggestions for future research. Group & Organization Management, 38(1), 3-35.
  • Heere, B., & James, J.D. (2007). Sports teams and their communities: Examining the influence of external group identities on team identity. Journal of Sport Management, 21(3), 319-337.
  • Henderson, K.A. (1994). Perspectives on analyzing gender, women, and leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 26(2), 119-137.
  • Henderson, K.A., Stalnaker, D., & Taylor, G. (1988). The relationship between barriers to recreation and gender-role personality traits for women. Journal of leisure research, 20(1), 69-80.
  • Horton, R., & Mack, D. (2000). Athletic identity in marathon runners: Functional focus or dysfunctional commitment? Journal of Sport Behavior, 23(2), 101.
  • Jackson, E.L., & Henderson, K.A. (1995). Gender‐based analysis of leisure constraints. Leisure sciences, 17(1), 31-51.
  • James, K. (2000). “You Can Feel Them Looking at You”: The Experiences of Adolescent Girls at Swimming Pools. Journal of Leisure Research, 32(2), 262.
  • Jun, J., & Kyle, G.T. (2011). The effect of identity conflict/facilitation on the experience of constraints to leisure and constraint negotiation. Journal of Leisure Research, 43(2), 176-204.
  • Jun, J., & Kyle, G.T. (2012). Gender identity, leisure identity, and leisure participation. Journal of Leisure Research, 44(3), 353-378.
  • Kane, M.J., & Greendorfer, S.L. (1994). The media’s role in accommodating and resisting stereotyped images of women in sport. In P.J. Creedon (Ed.), Women, media, and sport: Challenging gender values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  • Kane, M.J., & Maxwell, H.D. (2011). Expanding the Boundaries of Sport Media Research: Using Critical Theory to Explore Consumer Responses to Representations of Women’s Sports. Journal of Sport Management, 25(3).
  • Kim, K., & Sagas, M. (2014). Athletic or sexy? A comparison of female athletes and fashion models in Sports Illustrated swimsuit issues. Gender Issues, 31(2), 123-141
  • Knapp, B.A. (2015a). Gender representation in the CrossFit Journal: A content analysis. Sport in Society, 18(6), 688-703.
  • Knapp, B.A. (2015b). Rx’d and shirtless: An examination of gender in a CrossFit box. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 23(1), 42-53.
  • Koivula, N. (1999). Gender stereotyping in televised media sport coverage. Sex roles, 41(7-8), 589-604.
  • Koivula, N. (2001). Perceived characteristics of sports categorized as gender-neutral, feminine and masculine. Journal of Sport Behavior, 24(4), 377.
  • Krane, V., Choi, P.Y., Baird, S.M., Aimar, C.M., & Kauer, K.J. (2004). Living the paradox: Female athletes negotiate femininity and muscularity Sex roles, 50(5-6), 315-329.
  • Lovett, C.C. (1997). Olympic Marathon: A centennial history of the Games’ most storied race. Praeger Publishers.
  • Mead, G.H. (1934). Mind, self, and society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
  • McGannon, K.R., Schinke, R.J., Ge, Y., & Blodgett, A.T. (2019). Negotiating gender and sexuality: A qualitative study of elite women boxer intersecting identities and sport psychology implications. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 31(2), 168-186.
  • Messner, M.A. (1988). Sports and male domination: The female athlete as contested ideological terrain. Sociology of Sport Journal, 5(3), 197-211.
  • Morton, S. (2018). Using qualitative methodology to better understand why females experience barriers to regular participation in adventure sport in Scotland. Sport in Society, 21(2), 185-200. DOI: 10.1080/17430437.2017.1284808
  • Nash. M. (2018). ‘Let’s work on your weaknesses’: Australian CrossFit coaching, masculinity and neoliberal framings of ‘health’ and ‘fitness’. Sport in Society, 21(9), 1432-1453. doi: 10.1080/17430437.2017.1390565
  • Nadeau, J. and O’Reilly, N. (2006). Developing a profitability model for professional sport leagues: The case of the National Hockey League, International Journal of Sport Finance, 1(1), 46-52.
  • Nunnally, J.C., Bernstein, I.H., & Berge, J. (1967). Psychometric theory (Vol. 226). New York: McGraw-Hill.
  • O’Reilly, N., Berger, I.E., Hernandez, T., Parent, M.M., & Séguin, B. (2014). “Urban sportscapes: An environmental deterministic perspective on the management of youth sport participation”, Sport Management Review, 18(2), 291-307.
  • Owen M., Kerner C., Newson L., Noonan R., Curry W., Kosteli M-C., & Fairclough S. (2019). “Investigating adolescent girls’ perceptions and experiences of school-based physical activity to inform the Girls’ Peer Activity Intervention Study”. Journal of School Health, 89, 730-738. DOI: 10.1111/josh.12812
  • Pelak, C.F. (2002). Women’s Collective Identity Formation in Sports: A Case Study from Women’s Ice Hockey. Gender & Society, 16(1), 93-114.
  • Pickett, A.C., Goldsmith, A., Damon, Z., & Walker, M. (2016). The influence of sense of community on the perceived value of physical activity: a cross-context analysis. Leisure Sciences, 38(3), 199-214.
  • Reichheld, F.F. (2003). The one number you need to grow. Harvard Business Review, 81(12), 46-55.
  • Ridinger, L.L., Funk, D.C., Jordan, J.S., & Kaplanidou, K.K. (2012). Marathons for the masses: Exploring the role of negotiation-efficacy and involvement on running. Journal of Leisure Research, 44(2), 155.
  • Running USA (2017). 2017 State of the Sport—U.S. Race Trends. Retrieved 3/1/16 from: http://www.runningusa.org/2017-us-road-race-trends
  • Sabo, D. & Veliz, P. (2008). Girls drop-out at different rates depending on where they live. Go Out and play: youth sports in America. East Meadow, NY: Women’s Sports Foundation.
  • Salvatore, J., & Marecek, J. (2010). Gender in the gym: Evaluation concerns as barriers to women’s weightlifting. Sex Roles, 63, 556-567. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9800-8
  • Shaw, S.M. (1994). Gender, leisure, and constraint: Towards a framework for the analysis of women’s leisure. Journal of Leisure Research, 26(1), 8.
  • Slater, A., & Tiggemann, M. (2011). Gender differences in adolescent sport participation, teasing, self-objectification and body image concerns. Journal of adolescence, 34(3), 455-463.
  • Stryker, S., & Serpe, R.T. (1982). Commitment, identity salience, and role behavior: Theory and research example. In Personality, roles, and social behavior (pp. 199-218). Springer New York.
  • Stets, J.E., & Burke, P.J. (2000). Identity theory and social identity theory. Social psychology quarterly, 224-237.
  • Thoits, P.A. (1986). Multiple identities: Examining gender and marital status differences in distress. American Sociological Review, 259-272.
  • Thompson, W.R. (2014). Worldwide survey of fitness trends for 2015: what’s driving the market. ACSM’s Health & Fitness Journal, 18(6), 8-17.
  • Todd, J. (2005). Social transformation, collective categories, and identity change. Theory and Society, 34(4), 429-463.
  • Turner, J.C., Hogg, M.A., Oakes, P.J., Reicher, S.D., & Wetherell, M.S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Basil Blackwell.
  • Washington, M.S., & Economides, M. (2016). Strong Is the New Sexy Women, CrossFit, and the Postfeminist Ideal. Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 40(2), 143-161.
  • Webb, W.M., Nasco, S.A., Riley, S., & Headrick, B. (1998). Athlete identity and reactions to retirement from sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 21(3), 338-363.
  • Weir, J., & Vincent, W. (2012). Statistics in kinesiology (4th ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
  • Wegner, C. E., Jordan, J.S., Funk, D.C., & Clark, B.S. (2016) Black Girls Run: Facilitating a Connection for Black Women to the “White” Sport of Running. Journal of Sport Management, 30, 382-395.
  • Wegner, C.E., Ridinger, L.L., Jordan, J. S., & Funk, D.C. (2015). Get serious: gender and constraints to long-distance running. Journal of Leisure Research, 47(3), 305.
  • Whiteman-Sandland, J., Hawkins, J., & Clayton, D. (2016). The role of social capital and community belongingness for exercise adherence: An exploratory study of the CrossFit gym model. Journal of Health Psychology, doi: 1359105316664132.
  • Woolf, J. & Lawrence, H.J. (2017). Social identity and athlete identity among CrossFit members: an exploratory study on the CrossFit Open. Managing Sport and Leisure, doi: 10.1080/23750472.2017.1415770
  • Wiley, C.G., Shaw, S.M., & Havitz, M.E. (2000). Men’s and women’s involvement in sports: An examination of the gendered aspects of leisure involvement. Leisure Sciences, 22(1), 19-31.
  • Wood, L., & Danylchuk, K. (2012). Constraints and negotiation processes in a women’s recreational sport group. Journal of Leisure Research, 44(4), 463-485.

Discover more from International Journal of Sport Management

Subscribe now to keep reading and get access to the full archive.

Continue reading